ACIDS AND ALKALIS

What are acids and alkalis?

There is a group of chemicals called acids. These are all molecules containing hydrogen atoms. On the right is a list of certain acids you may come across. Click on each acid in turn to find out something about it.

Acids are generally dangerous. Never drink them or put them near your eyes. Never pour water into a concentrated acid as it heats up and can spit hot acid at you. If you must dilute a concentrated acid with water, pour the acid slowly and gently into the water.

Acids behave the way they do because they contain hydrogen ions (H+). In fact, acid molecules only contain these ions when they are dissolved in water. When they are pure, they consist of molecules, not ions. This is because hydrogen ions (which are lone protons) are unstable and can only exist if they can "hide" inside water molecules. When an acid turns from a molecule into ions, it is called DISSOCIATION.

We almost always write a hydrogen ion as H⁺. However, as it hides inside a water molecule (technically becoming a hydroxonium ion, although we don't usually call it that), we should really write it as H₃O⁺. Either way, it has a single positive charge on it.

Strong and weak acids

Acids like sulphuric acid, nitric acid and hydrochloric acid are called strong acids. This means that they dissociate almost completely when dissolved in water, i.e. almost all of the acid is in the form of hydrogen ions and the negative ions associated with the acid (sulphate, chloride or whatever). However, weak acids such as ethanoic acid only dissociate partially. The covalent molecules break up into hydrogen ions and ethanoate ions, but these ions start to recombine to form covalent ethanoic acid. In this way, an equilibrium is set up in which the rate at which covalent ethanoic acid is breaking up to form ions is the same as the rate at which the ions are recombining to form the covalent molecules. We can write this equilibrium as a reversible equation with a double arrow to show that it proceeds in both directions at once: CH₃COOH _(aq) CH₃COO^- _(aq) + H⁺ _(aq)

A reaction similar to this occurs when any acid is dissolved in water, of course, but for strong acids the result is almost entirely dissociated ions (the right side of the equation).

pH SCALE

The strength of an acid or an alkali can be measured by the concentration of hydrogen ions in it. The more hydrogen ions it contains, the more concentrated it is. For convenience, this concentration is turned into a number called the pH of the acid (standing for 'hydrogen potential').

As the pH of a liquid goes down, it becomes more acidic (less alkaline).

As the pH of a liquid goes up, it becomes more alkaline (less acidic).

The pH scale goes from 0 (strongly acidic) to 14 (strongly alkaline) with pure water (neutral - neither acidic nor alkaline) at 7 in the middle.

The concentration of any solution is represented as moles per litre, i.e. how many moles of the chemical are present in 1 litre (1000 cm³) of water. (For a fuller explanation of moles, see the section on Moles and the Avagadro Constant). This concentration is then written as a power of 10.

For instance, pure water consists almost entirely of covalent molecules, although a tiny proportion of its molecules do split up to form hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions. This means that the concentration of hydrogen ions is low, at 0.0000001 moles of hydrogen ions per litre, or 10^-7 moles per litre.

A concentrated acid would have a much higher concentration of hydrogen ions, for instance, 0.01 moles of hydrogen ions per litre, which could be written as 10^-2, and a strong alkali would have a lower concentration of hydrogen ions than even pure water, for instance, 0.0000000001 moles of hydrogen ions per litre, which could be written as 10^-10.

Having written the concentration as a power of 10, we simply remove the base number 10 (we call this "taking the logarithm") together with the minus sign, to give the pH value, so a concentration of 10^-7 moles per litre of hydrogen ions becomes a pH of 7 (not -7), which is the pH of water (or a neutral solution), and a concentration of 10^-2 moles per litre becomes a pH of 2, and a concentration of 10^-10 becomes a pH value of 10.

Indicators

There is a device called a pH meter which you can dip into a liquid and which will measure its pH. However, it is easier to use an indicator.

An indicator is a chemical that changes colour. Indicators are liquids, but they can be soaked into a type of paper similar to blotting-paper to form strips of indicator paper.

Just dip the indicator paper into the unknown liquid and it will change colour to show the pH.

The simplest indicator is Litmus (from the Litmus plant). It goes red in acids, blue in alkalis.

pH = less than 7	pH = more than 7

Universal indicator is a better indicator than litmus because it can show a greater range of colours. The chart below shows the approximate colour that universal indicator goes when put into liquids of different pH values.

pH = 3 or less	pH = 4 or 5	pH = 6	pH = 7 (neutral)	pH = 8 or 9	pH = 10 or more

Universal indicator is available as a liquid or soaked into absorbing paper. It is often used to work out the pH of soil samples to see which plants can be grown in a certain patch of ground.

There are other indicators, for example, methyl orange (which changes colour from colourless to orange at pH of about 3). They all have different pH values where they change colour, and each has its own uses.

ACID INDUSTRY

acids are widely used in industry because they react so redily with other materials.For example, sulphuric acid is used in the production of dyes and pigments,artificialfibres,plastics,soaps,and explosives.The acidsis made by sulphur and oxygen reacting together.

ACIDS RAIN

The term acid rain refers to what scientists call acid deposition. It is caused by airborne acidic pollutants and has highly destructive results.

Scientists first discovered acid rain in 1852, when the English chemist Robert Agnus invented the term. From then until now, acid rain has been an issue of intense debate among scientists and policy makers.

Acid rain, one of the most important environmental problems of all, cannot be seen. The invisible gases that cause acid rain usually come from automobiles or coal-burning power plants.

Acid rain moves easily, affecting locations far beyond those that let out the pollution. As a result, this global pollution issue causes great debates between countries that fight over polluting each other's environments.

For years, science studied the true causes of acid rain. Some scientists concluded that human production was primarily responsible, while others cited natural causes as well. Recently, more intensive research has been done so that countries have the information they need to prevent acid rain and its dangerous effects.

The levels of acid rain vary from region to region. In Third World nations without pollution restrictions, acid rain tends to be very high. In Eastern Europe, China, and the Soviet Union, acid rain levels have also risen greatly. However, because acid rain can move about so easily, the problem is definitely a global one.

BASES AND ALKALI

Each molecule of water (H₂O) is made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.

Unless they are frozen into ice, water molecules don’t always stay stuck together. When in liquid form, they are always splitting apart then reforming again. This is called dissociation. H₂O splits into two ions: OH^– (or hydroxide) ions and H⁺ (hydrogen ions; sometimes also called protons).

SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

Cascade
While employed by Procter & Gamble, Dennis Weatherby developed and received a patent for the automatic dishwasher detergent known by the tradename Cascade. He received his Masters degree in chemical engineering from the University of Dayton in 1984. Cascade is a registered trademark of the Procter & Gamble Company.

Ivory Soap
A soap maker at the Procter and Gamble company had no idea a new innovation was about to surface when he went to lunch one day in 1879. He forgot to turn off the soap mixer, and more than the usual amount of air was shipped into the batch of pure white soap that the company sold under the name The White Soap. Fearing he would get in trouble, the soap maker kept the mistake a secret and packaged and shipped the air-filled soap to customers around the country. Soon customers were asking for more "soap that floats." When company officials found out what happened, they turned it into one of the company’s most successful products, Ivory Soap.

Lifebuoy
The English company, Lever Brothers, an created Lifebuoy soap in 1895 and sold it as an antiseptic soap. They later changed its name to Lifebuoy Health Soap. Lever Brothers first coined the term "B.O." for bad odor as part of their marketing company for the soap.

Liquid Soap
William Shepphard first patented liquid soap on August 22, 1865. In 1980, the Minnetonka Corporation introduced the first modern liquid soap called SOFT SOAP brand liquid soap. Minnetonka cornered the liquid soap market by buying up the entire supply of the plastic pumps needed for the liquid soap dispensers. In 1987, the Colgate Company acquired the liquid soap business from Minnetonka.

Palmolive Soap
William Colgate started a candle and soap making company in New York City in 1806. By 1906, the company was making over 3,000 different soaps, perfumes and other products. For example, Colgate Dental Cream was introduced in 1877. In 1864, Caleb Johnson founded a soap company called B.J. Johnson Soap Co., in Milwaukee. In 1898, this company introduced a soap made of palm and olive oils, called Palmolive. It was so successful that that the B.J. Johnson Soap Co. changed their name to Palmolive in 1917. Another soap making company called the Peet Brothers Co. of Kansas City started in 1872. In 1927, Palmolive merged with them to became Palmolive Peet. In 1928, Palmolive Peet merged with Colgate to form Colgate-Palmolive-Peet. In 1953, the name was shortened to just Colgate-Palmolive. Ajax cleanser was one of their first major brand names introduced in the early 1940s.

Pine-Sol
Chemist, Harry A. Cole of Jackson, Mississippi invented and sold the pine-scented cleaning product called Pine-Sol in 1929. Pine-Sol is the biggest selling household cleaner in the world. Cole sold Pin-Sol shortly after its invention (now owned by Clorox Company) and went on to create more pine oil cleaners called FYNE PINE and PINE PLUS. Together with his sons, Cole started the H. A. Cole Products Co. to manufacture and sell his products. Pine forests surrounded the area where the Coles lived, providing an ample supply of pine oil.

S.O.S Soap Pads
In 1917, Ed Cox of San Francisco, an aluminum pot salesman, invented a pre-soaped pad with which to clean pots. As a way of introducing himself to potential new customers, Cox made the soap incrusted steel-wool pads as a calling card. His wife named the soap pads S.O.S. or "Save Our Saucepans." Cox soon found out that the S.O.S pads were a hotter product than his pots and pans.

Tide
In the 1920s, Americans used soap flakes to clean their laundry. The flakes performed poorly in hard water, leaving a ring in the washing machine, dulling colors, and turning whites gray. Procter & Gamble began an ambitious mission to change the way Americans washed their clothes. Researchers discovered two-part molecules which they called synthetic surfactants. Each part of the "miracle molecules" executed a specific function--one pulled grease and dirt from the clothes, while the other suspended dirt until it could be rinsed away. In 1933, this discovery was introduced in a detergent called "Dreft," but it could only handle lightly soiled jobs. The next goal was to create a detergent that could clean heavily soiled clothes. That detergent was Tide®.

Created in 1943, Tide detergent was the combination of synthetic surfactants and "builders." The builders helped the synthetic surfactants penetrate the clothes more deeply to attack greasy, difficult stains. Tide was introduced to test markets in October 1946 as the world’s first heavy-duty detergent. Consumer response was immediate and intense. Tide detergent outsold every other brand within weeks. It became so popular that store owners were forced to limit the quantity purchased per customer.

Tide detergent was improved 22 times during its first 21 years on the market, and Procter & Garketstill strives for perfection. Each year, researchers duplicate the mineral content of water from all parts of the United States and wash 50,000 loads of laundry to test Tide detergent’s consistency and performance.

Formula 409
Formula 409 all-purpose cleaner was invented in 1957.

How Does Soap Clean?
You may use it every day, but do you know how it works? Learn about emulsions, micelles, and soap scum! Then check out links to sites about bubbles, soapmaking, and the regulation of soap chemistry.

The History of Soap
A soap-like material found in clay cylinders during the excavation of ancient Babylon is evidence that soap making was known as early as 2800 B.C.

The History of Soapmaking
B. J. Johnson Company was making soap entirely of vegetable oils, palm and olive. The soap they produced became so popular, they renamed their company after the soap Palmolive.

Detergent Chemistry: History
Although the start of the synthetic detergent industry is not shrouded in the veils of history as were the beginnings of the soap industry, it is nevertheless not easy to pinpoint exactly when the first were invented.

OILS SLICKS

Oil slicks float on oceans and seas, covering them in a thick film of crude or refined petroleum oil. When freight ships carrying tens of thousands of tons of fuel crash, malfunction, or encounter harsh weather, they spill enormous amounts of oil into the water. Since oil and water don't mix, the oil spreads out into a layer that hovers, as one mass, on top of the ocean.

Thousands of oil slicks result from massive oil spills every year. Oil slicks are difficult to control or contain and even more challenging to clean up. Once formed, an oil slick becomes an unpredictable phenomenon. It might end up spreading, migrating, thinning or thickening, moving towards land or further out to sea. An international community of activists, organizers, and technical developers has formed to identify, manage, and eliminate the devastating oil slicks.

The fate of an oil slick is determined by many factors, including local and regional weather, ocean currents, tides when near a land mass, the relationship between air and water temperature, the chemical composition of the crude or refined oil, wind direction, and the presence of icebergs. Humans must intervene with tracking devices, booms, absorbent materials, and chemical treatments.

Oil slicks can be diverted or captured using floating booms. These are mechanical blockers that loop around the edges of the slick and possibly squeeze it away from land or relegate it to a controllable area. Sometimes slicks are lit on fire to burn them off. Other times, the physical barriers bring them to an area where they can be removed with sorbent booms. Using absorption or adsorption, the booms catch some of the oil manually. Most of it will be disposed, but some may be re-refined to use as fuel.

Not surprisingly, oil slicks cause untold damage to algae, seaweed, plant life, fish, birds, sea mammals, shellfish, and the soil and rocks on beaches. Oil sticks to everything, creating multiple mortal hazards. It can prevent dolphins or whales from breathing, drown birds that can't swim away, or intoxicate fish and animals that drink or eat it. Sand and rocks may need to be dug up and thrown away if oil seepage makes them impossible to clean. Even years after an area has been hit with an oil slick, the ecosystem shows evidence of the disaster with lower biomass and fewer species.

NUETRALIZING ACIDS

Various chemicals are available for industrial neutralization depending upon the application and whether you are neutralizing an acid or base liquid. In most cases, Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) and Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) will be used. The end-user must consider the concentration to be used, must carefully analyze all the chemistries involved, must review manufacturers’ warnings and instructions, and must consider common safety measures for hazardous liquids. Other chemicals may be preferred based upon the amount of waste, the pH extremes expected, operating costs, batch versus continuous considerations, secondary reactions that might occur with the waste chemicals, storage issues, and other process design concerns. Wastech Controls OMEGA acid or caustic neutralization systems and LabDELTA acid neutralization systems can be designed for use with all of the following chemicals.

The most common neutralizing chemicals are:

Acids:
Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - which converts in water to Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4)
Nitric Acid (HNO3)

Bases:
Caustic (NaOH) – also known as Caustic Soda
Calcium Hydroxide (CaOH2)
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) – also known as Lime or Limestone
Ammonium Hydroxide (NH4OH)

The basic principle of neutralization of a base or acid requires either hydroxide ions (OH-)
in a base for neutralizing an acid or hydrogen ions (H+) in an acid for neutralizing a base.

Neutralization with Acid
Since most chemicals listed above will work to neutralize waste streams, cost considerations will often determine the selection. Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) is by far the most common acid available and is generally less expensive. Concentration is also an issue. Sulfuric Acid is available in 98% concentrations and may be the most economical in this form but storage issues such as the types of tanks and secondary containment available, familiarity of operators in handling hazardous liquids, the dangers of refilling storage containers or procedures for transferring from bulk containers, may suggest 30% to 50% concentrations regardless of the increased costs.

Neutralization with Caustic
Liquid Caustic (NaOH) is most common in 50% concentrations. Because of safety issues, some customers, to avoid a hazardous liquid, may opt for passive neutralization via Lime or Limestone in its solid, mineral form, despite its bulk and weight. Sodium Hydroxide is often preferred because of its solubility. Unfortunately, the neutralization process also forms salts that are very soluble in water. This high solids content can affect pump selection and maintenance. Temperature can also be an issue since 50% NaOH will begin to freeze at temperatures below 60F. This will obviously interfere with the process. Often 25% NaOH is recommended since this lowers the freezing point to below that of water.

Neutralization with CO2
In cement pouring operations large amounts of alkaline wastewater are generated. Discharge authorities demand that such wastewater be treated on site. Carbon Dioxide (CO2), which converts to Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) in water, is an excellent choice for such applications since the site is temporary, the gas is non-hazardous, can be used in-line assuming retention and mixing is considered and is self-buffering so regardless of dosage it will not lower the pH below 7.5-7.0. There are numerous operating considerations for using CO2 which Wastech Controls has mastered and an OMEGA skid mounted solution can monitor and neutralize on demand saving chemical and operating costs.

Mixing chemicals is always potentially dangerous. Consider carefully if a hazardous gas may be formed during the neutralization process. The complexity of most proprietary processes and the possible changes to a waste stream during operations makes it impossible for Wastech Controls to recommend or specify a chemical for a particular process. Wastech engineers will offer solutions, but final suitability and safety concerns must be the responsibility of the end-user at the application site. Problems with neutralizing chemicals are uncommon but must be anticipated by the end-user or operator. Many safety features are built into Wastech's OMEGA neutralization systems.

SVANTE ARRHENIUS

Svante August Arrhenius was born on February 19, 1859, the son of Svante Gustaf Arrhenius and Carolina Christina Thunberg.He won acclaim for his research intohow compounds from ions in solution.this work led him to realize that it is hydrogen ions that give acids their special properties

Aboriginal Australian

Australian Aboriginal History

At the risk of oversimplifying, the basic history of the Australian Aborigine is as follows.

The first Aboriginal settlers colonized what is now Australia between 40,000 and 80,000 years ago via what is now Papua New Guinea or what is now Indonesia.

Like all civilizations, they destroyed as much of the natural environment as their technology would allow. After they had done this a steady state (sometimes called ecological harmony) resulted.

The Australian environment was very harsh for a low technology people, but they adapted well, and bred up to somewhere between 200,000 and 500,000 people. Their technology was not advanced, but it served them pretty well and they were able to spent a lot of their time finger-painting on the walls of caves and making up stories about the Dream Time.

European settlers with more advanced technology arrived in 1788 from England and began re-colonizing.

They got on rather badly with the locals. Two primitive cultures based on force and exploitation (and nothing else in common) were bound to clash badly.

The European settlers were embarrassed by this, and the English ordered the Australian Governor to make a treaty with the native population. He was unable to do so, partly because of limited resources (life was not just brutish and short for the Aboriginal population) but mostly because there was no central Aboriginal authority to deal with. The Aborigines were in relatively small tribes, spoke many different languages and spent much of their surplus waring with each other. Negotiating with all of them was nearly impossible. The Local Governor reported this to his English command.

The English were embarrassed by this, and as a convenience they declared Australia 'Terra Nullius' (effectively uninhabited).

The European settlers passed many diseases to the Aborigines, who through their isolation for so long, had little resistance. In particular, two plagues of small-pox in 1792 and 1822 swept through the Aboriginal populations and wiped many of them out. There was also a plague of venereal disease, but many believe this was contracted from non-European fishermen in the north of Australia.

There was a low level war over a period of time. Aborigines would take sheep from local farmers (and eat them). Farmers would go and kill the Aborigines.

The area became the nation of Australia in 1901, and though it was basically democratic, Aborigines were not eligible to vote. They were not classified as 'Australians'.

The last mass-killing of Aborigines was in 1926 after a European-Australian was reported killed by an Aborigine, and a local-policemen collected a gang of people to kill the local tribe. The more senior authorities were embarrassed by this, and took steps to prevent it reoccurring.

Generally Aborigines were encouraged to move to 'settlements' away from the European infrastructure where they would cause less trouble.

The Europeans always considered Aborigines as racially inferior to them, and it was widely believed that they would simply 'die out'. This belief was challenged a bit by the number of mixed-race children which started springing up in Aboriginal settlements. [Mixed-race children are always a problem for racial supremacists].

This embarrassed the European descendants, particularly as most of the mixed-race children were being raised in conditions which they felt whites (even part-whites) shouldn't be raised in.

In the 1930s, 40s and 50s, government, charitable and church groups moved many mixed-race children into orphanages, and in some cases helped adopt them into white families. It was felt that part-white children could be integrated into white society. Some Aboriginal and part-Aboriginal parents gave up their children voluntarily, some children were taken by force. About 15% of children are thought removed from their parents in this time.

Many white children were also removed from their mothers during this time - particularly single mothers who, it was felt would be unable to raise their children (though very few by force). Separating parents and children generally was a pretty fashionable thing to do.

In 1967 after a federal referendum on the topic, Aborigines became citizens and were allowed to vote in state and federal elections.

By the 1980s it was considered a bad thing to remove children from parents generally, and the population was embarrassed by the history of encouraged and forced removals. Spurred on by new leftist politically correct ideologies, the (now adult) children saw this as an opportunity for protest and for monetary compensation.

The government commissioned appropriately socially-minded experts to hold inquiries, and the term 'stolen generation' was born.

Aboriginal activism continued strongly, but was splintered by different groups pushing in different directions.

Some Aboriginal groups believed that their culture was irretrievably lost, and the best way forward was to integrate into the mainstream population. Unfortunately they were not culturally well-equipped to handle it. Modern first-world culture is very different to tribal culture. Modern economies are based on production, not relationships. They are based on ownership, not community. And they are based on long term sacrifice and planning, not reaction.

Some Aboriginal groups thought that going back was the way forward, and that they were better off living in tribal environments isolated from the rest of society. Many of their politically correct European countrymen were keen on this idea - it was a chance to curate their indigenous populations, in the same way that many older Australians have a statue of an Aborigine in their front yard instead of a garden gnome.

However, the attractions of Western technology, culture and drugs were more attractive to many Aborigines, so an curative approach didn't work.

Most solutions suggested for the future of the Aborigines were a contradictory mixture of the integrative and curative extremes, and were destined to result in an indefinite reliance on welfare, and hence relative poverty.

The reality is that Aboriginal culture has nothing to offer modern Australia apart from some interesting painting styles (lots of dots), interesting musical sounds (like the didgeridoo), and quaint myths about the dream time. To ignore this fact is to sentence yet more Australian Aborigines to dependence and relative poverty.

Three generations of welfare dependence have not helped the Australian Aborigine. Cultural subsidization, rather than making them proud of their cultural heritage, has prevented them adapting to their new environment. Affirmative action has just made people suspicious of any Aboriginal with a job or a qualification, and has created mistrust and resentment from others who feel it has reduced their own opportunities.

Only when mainstream Australia stops patronizing the Aborigines will Aborigines truly become members of it.

Aboriginal Culture

Australia's indigenous people, the Aborigines, can trace back their culture 50,000 years. Aborigines have survived harsh desert conditions and have a detailed knowledge of the plants, animals and water sources available in the country. For the traveller who wishes to gain an insight into their culture there are a number of tours hosted by or arranged in conjunction with Aboriginal communities. Many tours feature Aboriginal folklore, the Dreamtime, an epic tale of the land and how it was formed. To keep their folklore alive, the Aborigines re-tell their stories in songs, fables, dances and cave paintings. On many tours cave paintings and stone carvings can be visited. Bark paintings, fabrics, ceramics, jewellery, clothing and musical instruments can be purchased at gift and souvenir outlets in major cities and some outback areas. Major Aboriginal areas rich in cultural heritage are Arnhem Land and Uluru in the Northern Territory, Quinkan Reserves and Kuranda in Queensland, Bibbulmun Trek and the Kimberley in Western Australia, Ku-ring-gai Chase and Mootwingee National Parks in New South Wales, Tandanya in Adelaide, South Australia, The Grampians (Gariwerd), Lake Condah Aboriginal Mission in Victoria and Namadgi National Park in the Australian Capital Territory.
It is generally thought that Aborigines have been living on the continent for the last 50,000 years, originally migrating from Indonesia. The oldest skeleton found in Australia was discovered at Lake Mungo in south-west New South Wales, is believed to be 38,000 years old, and bears traces of ceremonial ochre. This is thought to be the oldest sign of ochre use ever discovered. Unlike most other races, Aboriginals were not cultivators, relying instead on a form of controlled burning of vegetation known as 'fire-stick farming'. They did not develop a sense of land ownership, although Aboriginal children were taught from an early age that they belonged to the land and must respect tribal boundaries. Tribes returned to particular sites to bury their dead. Some areas were designated sacred sites because of their association with the Dreamtime, the time when the earth was formed and cycles of life and nature were initiated. Aboriginal legends, songs and dances tell of powerful spirits who created the land and people during the Dreamtime. There is no written Aboriginal language and most of the 600 tribes spoke different dialects and languages. They rarely met except on ceremonial occasions. The tradition of the Dreamtime, however, was a unifying force and rock paintings depicting this creation period can be found dotted throughout the country. Some of the most striking and best preserved of these can be viewed at rock galleries in Kakadu National Park and other parts of northern Australia. The arrival of white people gradually brought an end to the traditional Aboriginal way of life, when settlement began to encroach on tribal lands. Today, most Aborigines live in cities and towns or in isolated settlements near tribal lands. Few continue their nomadic ways. In recent years, white Australians have become more sensitive to the plight of Aborigines, resulting in increased health and educational services, greater recognition of Aboriginal land rights and a growing appreciation of Aboriginal culture. Specialised galleries display Aboriginal art, tools, musical instruments and artefacts. These are highly valued and avidly sought by collectors all over the world. DREAMTIME They say we have been here for 40 000 years, but it is much longer - We have been here since time began We have come directly out of the Dreamtime of our creative ancestors - We have kept the earth as it was on the first day. Our culture is focused on recording the origins of life. We refer to forces and powers that created the world as creative ancestors. Our beautiful world has been created only in accordance with the power, wisdom and intentions of our ancestral beings. Uluru (Ayers Rock) Kata Tjuta National Park: 280 miles (450km) southwest of Alice Springs. Ayers Rock/ Uluru, the world's largest monolith and an Aboriginal sacred site is Australia's most famous natural landmark. Visitors may wish to make the tough 1.6km ascent to the top or take a walking tour around the rock with an aboriginal guide , learning about its fascinating with the Uluru people and its importance in dreamtime legend. Also in this enormous park are many Aboriginal sacred sites, spectacular scenery and famous rock formations. Visit the Olgas/ Kata Tjuta, a dramatic series of 36 dome-like rock formations which stand up to 1,701ft (546m) high and cover an area of 35km and like Uluru, produce an incredible light show at sunset, with crimsons turning to rusts, and pinks to mauves. Aboriginal Education 60% Percentage of Aboriginal children significantly behind non-Aboriginal children by the time they start Year One. 40% Percentage by which an Aboriginal student's chance of employment rises if they complete year 10 or 11. Completing Year 12 increases employment prospects by a further 13% . 40% Percentage of Aboriginal children who stay at school until year 12, compared to 76% among non-Indigenous children . 24% of people in remote communities have a school that goes up only to year 12. 29% have a school up to year 10 . 10% Percentage of Aboriginal children who graduate from year 12 . 3% Percentage of Aboriginal students who complete a university degree . 36% of people in remote communities have access to a library. Education is the greatest single weapon to overcome disadvantage and the impact of this denial of education affects me and other Indigenous people to this day.